Irispublishers-Global Journal of Nutrition & Food Science (GJNFS)

 

Promoting Mucuna Beans Production for Soil Rehabilitation, Incomes, Food and Nutrition Security in Kenya

Authored by Mary Stella Wabwoba*

Abstract

This is a review paper of promotion of Mucuna Pruriens beans in western Kenya (Bungoma, Kakamega and Siaya counties). Mucuna is a leguminous plant grown in tropical woodlands. It is an emerging multiple use legume with the potential to restore soil structure, used as animal feed, as well as food/nutrition security in households. Due to its many uses, it was promoted for adoption by farmers in western Kenya. Families in western part of Kenya were food insecure in terms of protein insufficiency, crop productivity was low due to infertile soils and had low incomes within households. The adoption of Mucuna growing would solve the mentioned problems. Farmers were mobilized to grow the beans, process for food and for sell to earn income. The maize yield intercropped with Mucuna doubled in subsequent years. Various recipes were developed, tasted and adopted. The raw beans and processed products earned household’s income which improved livelihoods. The Mucuna beans production was therefore recommended for soil rehabilitation, income generation and for food and nutrition security within households.

Keywords: Mucuna beans; Soil rehabilitation; Incomes; Food and nutrition security

Abbreviations: GIZ: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH; CA: Conservation Agriculture; GOPA: Gesellschaft für Organization, Planung and Ausbildung; WHH: Welt Hunge Hilife; KALRO: Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organization

Introduction

Mucuna prurien beans is a genus of around 100 accepted species of climbing lianas (vines) and shrubs of the family Fabaceae and typically found in tropical woodlands. The plant has a potential for multiple uses. According to Food and Agriculture Organization [1], Mucuna (Mucuna pruriens) has potential to restore soil as well as provide food. It is an emerging multiple-use leguminous crop [2] with high potential to enhance soil health and biodiversity. Mucuna bean (Mucuna pruriens) has been grown in Kenya for purposes of rehabilitating deteriorated soils, animal feeds as well as human food. Farmers in Western Kenya (Bungoma, Kakamega and Siaya counties) have grown Mucuna beans as a Conservation Agriculture (CA) crop. This crop when grown, it prevents soil deterioration and rehabilitate the affected areas, meaning it has the potential to restore soil structure [1]. Western Kenya counties in partnership with GIZ promoted the growing of Mucuna crop as a cover crop. A total of 325 (7500 individual farmers) farmer groups are actively involved in Mucuna production. On average 18,967 hectares of land were rehabilited by growing Mucuna beans crop today (Table 1). This explains why the beans have been promoted widely in these counties. Field reports indicated that crops grown on land that previously was under Mucuna or intercropped with it doubled yields. Accordingly, 50% grain-yield increase was reported at demonstration farms in maize grown under conservation agriculture systems in Kakamega, Bungoma and Siaya counties that used the Mucuna bean as an intercrop or rotation crop [3]. Soil is the most valuable and widespread natural resource that supports agricultural-based livelihoods. Soil in Western Kenya is highly degraded due to inappropriate farming practices such as overreliance on mineral fertilizer, erosion and inadequate rotation. Productivity levels of many crop enterprises is below potential, while the yield trends have either remained constant or are on the decline. Additionally, the soils have sub optimal nitrogen, organic matter, and low pH [4]. To get higher yields, farmers have often resorted to applying more and more inorganic fertilizers, thus high cost of production and accelerated soil pollution [1].

Mucuna bean, like other legume seeds, contains anti-nutritional compounds such as phytate, polyphenols, protease inhibitors and aromatic amino acids that cause physiological and biochemical effects including decreased protein digestibility plus growth inhibition in animals [5]. A variety of processing techniques such as soaking, heat treatment (boiling and roasting), have been used to remove anti-nutritional compounds and hence improve bean nutritional value [6]. Mucuna bean contains a major antinutritional compound, a non-protein amino acid, 3,4-dihydroxy-Lphenylalanine (L-Dopa) which must be removed before utilization [7]. There was lack of useful data in the Counties showing the nutritive value, recipes, various products from Mucuna crop. There was need for an elaborated training to equip the lead farmers with sufficient knowledge to pass on to others. This approach was used to make Mucuna production sustainable, generate income for households and contribute towards reducing food insecurity cases among households.

The Problem

Households in Bungoma County are food insecure because many families take one meal a day and more specifically men were reported to be malnourished due to protein deficit in their diets [8,4]. Mucuna is rich in protein but cannot be utilized without processing due to the presence of anti-nutritional compounds such as phytate, polyphenols, protease inhibitors and aromatic amino acids that cause physiological and biochemical effects including decreased protein digestibility, growth inhibition in animals. Mucuna bean contains a major anti-nutritional compound, a non-protein amino acid, 3,4-dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine-L-Dopa [9]. Survey reports showed that, there was lack of useful data in the survey Counties to show the nutritive value, recipes, various products from Mucuna prurien beans. The impact on the yield of crop intercropped with Mucuna beans was not established. Field reports revealed that farmers wished to utilize the Mucuna beans but lacked knowledge on how to process the beans into palatable forms [10]. Therefore, it was necessary for an elaborated training to equip the lead farmers with sufficient knowledge to pass on to others. This approach was used to make Mucuna production sustainable and would contribute towards reducing food insecurity cases among households.

Objectives

• To assess the impact of Mucuna as a cover crop on agricultural productivity of arable land while conserving the soil resources through innovative farming practices.

• To capacity build extension staff and farmers on how to process the beans to remove the Ant-nutritional Factors (L-Dopa and other anti-nutrients) and develop home grown recipes in combination with locally available foods to increase food security.

• To empower farmers with business skills to value add and market Mucuna products as an income generating activity (IGA) to increase incomes and improve livelihoods.

Methodology

The survey targeted agriculture extension officers and farmer groups and individuals growing Mucuna beans. To achieve the above objectives, First, the GIZ project staff from Bungoma, Kakamega and siaya Counties mobilized agricultural extension staff both from public and NGOs/organizations, who were involved in promotion of Mucuna as cover crop for conservation agriculture in the GIZ/GOPA Soil Protection and Rehabilitation programme, for purpose of this survey. The extension staff undertook a training for two days after which they each trained farmer within their wards on the same. Secondly, farmer groups from Bungoma, Kakamega and Siaya counties were mobilized and sensitised on growing of Mucuna beans as a cover crop to rehabilitate the degraded soils. Farmers were given Mucuna beans to grow on their farms as an intercrop with maize and the maize yields compared [3]. Thirdly, the lead farmers were trained on how to process the beans to remove ANF, developed recipes alongside locally available foods. The delivery methods of training involved presentations, cooking demonstrations and group discussions. Finally, farmers were taught entrepreneurial skills to sell the Mucuna products to earn incomes.

Results and Discussions

Effect of Mucuna intercrop on maize yield

Mucuna cover cropping was introduced to farmers in Western Kenya counties – Bungoma,Kakamega and Siaya to solve problem of soil erosion and infertility. It was a project by Giz-funded by German government. It was originally proposed to farmers for soil fertility improvement on poorly degraded soils. A survey was conducted during the 2014 growing season of 20 farmers who were exposed to the technology over a period of five years. The results showed that 50 percent of the participating farmers used the technology for at least three consecutive years. At first, the technology met a lot of resistance but later, after seeing the increase in the maize yields from the fields that had Mucuna, many farmers picked up the practice [3]. The maize yield increased from 5bags per acre to 60bags per acre in the fifth year of practice (Figure 1). This result is comparable with what was found in other parts of the world. According to Jonathan et al [2], use of Mucuna interventions in agro-systems revitalized land by improving soil fertility for crop cultivation. As nitrogen-fixing legume, it was reported to improve maize yield by between 200 kg and 800 kg/acre after a one-year fallow [11]. As cover crop, mucuna has a positive effect on soil moisture retention [12] and hence yield increase. Conclusions about the future viability of mucuna cover cropping may be drawn from an economic analysis based on some of the yield and adoption data. It indicated that positive returns are achieved at farmer levels in the second year after adopting mucuna. It was observed that adoption of mucuna saves the farmer from using organic fertilizers as the soils become fertile.

Uses of Mucuna (Food and Nutrition Security)

Mucuna has three main uses: food, feed (forage and seeds) and environmental management - cover crop and green manure [13]. It is used as a coffee substitute [14]. The Mucuna showed good potential to do well in a stressed environment and low soil fertility that does not allow most other food legumes. It is suitable in intercropping systems [15], especially in Western Kenya, where maize is staple crop, plus millet, sorghum and sugarcane. Mucuna vines and foliage can be used as pasture, hay or silage while pods and seeds can be ground into a meal and fed to livestock [16].

Mucuna has three main uses: food, feed (forage and seeds) and environmental management - cover crop and green manure [13]. It is used as a coffee substitute [14]. The Mucuna showed good potential to do well in a stressed environment and low soil fertility that does not allow most other food legumes. It is suitable in intercropping systems [15], especially in Western Kenya, where maize is staple crop, plus millet, sorghum and sugarcane. Mucuna vines and foliage can be used as pasture, hay or silage while pods and seeds can be ground into a meal and fed to livestock [16].

Home processed Mucuna beans recipes

Extension staff from wards that had large acres under mucuna of the county were trained on processing and utilization of Mucuna [10]. This enabled them to effectively guide the lead farmers during on - farm trainings within groups. The training content focused on processing methods, nutritive value, development of various recipes and utilization of Mucuna products. Entrepreneurial skills, market linkages and networking, among others [18]. This was followed by onfarm training of lead farmers on processing and utilization of Mucuna. This training targeted individual farmers and farmer groups involved in Mucuna production who were drawn from subcounties. A Face to Face or Farmer to Farmer(F-F) model of on-farm training was adopted for effective understanding. Herein are some of the recipes which were developed, tasted and adopted.

General method of removing anti-nutritional factors (anfs) at home

1. Sort out and clean the harvested dried Mucuna beans.

2. Soak for 24 hours while changing water 3 times

3. Boil for 4 to 5 hours as you frequently change the water.

4. De-husk the beans (Husks can be fed to livestock while cotyledon for human)

5. The beans can be dried and can be used in various ways:

a) Boiled together with other foods

b) Milled into flour

c) Roasted until brown or dark brown then milled into powder- beverage

Mucuna Recipes

Trainees were divided into groups and developed various products, ranging from Mucuna Beverage, Mucuna/ wheat flour cake, Mucuna ugali(maize/millet), Mucuna – banana relish, Mucuna- potato mash, Mucuna-Maize dish, Mucuna / wheat flour Chapati, Mucuna mandazi, Mucuna Pilau, crackies, Nutri porridge, cakes (Figure 2).

Mucuna crackies (Figure 3)

Ingredients

Mucuna flour: 1 cup

Wheat flour: 3 cups

Sugar: 4 tbs

Sugar: 4 tbs

Salt to taste Cooking oil: just enough for deep fry

Mixed Spices: 2tbs water to make the dough

Method

• Mix all the dry ingredients in a bowl

• Add margarine, water and knead to make the dough

• Squeeze the dough through the noddle machine onto the hot oil

• Remove when golden brown

Mucuna Stew

Ingredients

1kg dehusked Mucuna beans

Cooking salad

Spices

Onions and tomatoes

Method

• Boil the beans until soft.

• Blend the beans to make a thick puree.

• Fry onions add tomatoes and spices then add the beans.

• Continue to boil while stirring till it’s ready

• Serve with rice, chapatti or sweet potatoes

Mucuna Chapati (Figure 4)

Ingredients

Mucuna flour: 1 cup

Wheat flour: 3cups

Cooking salad oil and Salt to taste

Method

• Add 1cup mucuna flour to 3 cups wheat flour.

• Add a little salt to taste

• Kneed the mixture to make chapatti dough

• Cook as we cook chapatti

Mucuna Mash (Mafuke)

Ingredients

6 medium size sweet potato

1cups boiled dehusked Mucuna beans

2 bunches of pumpkin leaves (optional)

1 teaspoon of margarine

Salt to taste

Method

4. Peel potatoes and chop into small pieces

5. Add to boiled dehusked Mucuna beans and salt to taste

6. Boil till all the food staffs are well cooked

7. Drain excess water, add margarine and mash to a smooth texture

8. Serve when hot with sour milk or fresh fruit juice

Mucuna Bean Beverage (Figure 5)

Ingredients

Dry Mucuna beans

Method

• Sort out and clean the dry Mucuna beans.

• Soak for 24 hours while changing water 3 times

• Boil for 2 to 3 hours as you frequently change the water

• Drain the water and dry in the sun

• Pan roast the beans until dark brown (or if Electric roaster, set at Temp- 150o C for 50 minutes)

Mucuna Food Mix

Ingredients

Dry Mucuna beans

Method

• Sort out and clean the dry mucuna beans.

• Soak for 24 hours while changing water 3 times

• Boil for 2 to 3 hours as you frequently change the water three times.

• Drain the water and dry in the sun

• Pan roast the beans until brown (or if electric roaster, set at Temp- 150o C for 25 minutes)

• Grind into fine powder/flour (this can be used to enrich other foods)

• Mix the flour with any food additive of your choice and this can be used to thicken soups

Mucuna as an Income Generating Activity (IGA)

Farmers adopting mucuna cover cropping benefited from higher yields of maize with less labour for weeding. Many of the early adopters also earned additional revenue by selling Mucuna seed as the technology was disseminated. Some farmers after the training, picked up processing the Mucuna powder which is used as a beverage for sale. Due to its medicinal value and health benefits, Mucuna beverage sells like hot cakes in the region and it generates income to the families.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Mucuna beans like any other legume is a rich source of proteins and therefore can supplement proteins in the diet. Mucuna can be a source of income to households and hence improve livelihoods. Soil nutrient management should thus be integrated with mucuna residue supplemented with moderate amounts of inorganic fertilizer for high crop yields. Mucuna fallowing has additional benefits, such as soil erosion control and maintenance or improvement of the soil’s physical, chemical and biological properties. Mucuna beans should be adopted for soil rehabilitation, food and nutrition security and income generation.

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Chemical Residues in Food Grains: The Burning Health Issues in Asian Countries

Authored by A K Mohiuddin*

Abstract

Food security is a high-priority issue for sustainable global development both quantitatively and qualitatively. Once pesticides are applied, residues may be found in soil, on plant, on harvested product, on application equipment, in water and irrigation canals, in pesticide storage area, on cloth of applicant. Short term poisoning effects like nausea, vomiting, headache, chest pain, eye, skin and throat irritation etc. and potential longterm health effect like allergies, cancer, nervous system damage, birth defects, reproductive problem have been reported in recent decades, adverse effects of unexpected contaminants on crop quality have threatened both food security and human health. Heavy metals, metalloids (e.g., Hg, As, Pb, Cd, and Cr) from pesticides and fertilizers can jeopardize human metabolomics, contributing to morbidity and even mortality. Those during crop production include soil nutrient depletion, water depletion, soil and water contamination, and pest resistance/outbreaks and the emergence of new pests and diseases.

Keywords: pesticides; cancer; organochlorine insecticides; heavy metal poisoning; fertilizers; food-processing operations

Introduction

Growth in global population means that farmers must produce food for an estimated 9.1 billion people expected to inhabit the earth by 2050 [1] (Figure). Humans cultivate only about 150 of an estimated 50,000 edible plant species worldwide, with only 30 plant species comprising the vast majority of our diets. Just three of these (rice, maize and wheat) provide about 60% of the world’s food energy intake [2,3]. These plants are susceptible to 80,000 to 100,000 diseases caused by everything from viruses to bacteria, fungi, algae, and even other higher plants [4]. Again, Food plants have to compete with some 30,000 different species of weeds worldwide, of which at least 1800 species are capable of causing serious economic losses [5]. Globally, around 20-30% of agricultural produce is lost annually due to insect pests, diseases, weeds and rodents, viz, growth, harvest, and storage [1,6]. According to World Bank, South Asian countries are home to home to 33% of the world’s poor and economies have among the highest levels of public debt in the world [7]. Mean consumption of whole grains 38.4 g/ day in between 1990 to 2010. Southeast Asian nations along with 2/3 Sub-Saharan African regions had the highest intakes. Overall, 23 of 187 countries had mean whole grain intake ≥2.5 (50 g) servings/day, representing 335 million adults and 7.6% of the world adult population [8]. Southeast Asia is a region that produces high amounts of key food commodities and includes areas of divergent socio-economic status. The major grain crops produced in the region are rice and maize [9]. The potential sources for the contamination of grains are mostly environmentally based and include air, dust, soil, water, insects, rodents, birds, animals, microbes, humans, storage and shipping containers, handling and processing equipment [10]. The rates of destruction often are higher in less developed nations and they are now accounting for a quarter of the world’s pesticide use [5,11]. Therefore, judicious use of pesticides plays a major role in plant protection. Today’s more than 10,400 pesticides are approved worldwide. It has been reported that the consumption of pesticides accounts two million tons every year worldwide [12]. Interestingly, many pesticides still widely used in the USA, at the level of tens to hundreds of millions of pounds annually, have been banned or are being phased out in the EU, China and Brazil [13]. Pesticide residues reported in fruits, vegetables and grains of India [14], Nepal [15], Bangladesh [16], China [17] and Indonesia [18]. Farmers habitually apply fertilizers and hazardous insecticides in high quantities without assessing the actual field requirements due to inadequate knowledge [1,19]. Since pesticides are directly applied on crops, fruits, and vegetables in most agricultural applications, infants, children, and adults can be exposed to pesticides by the ingestion of those pesticidecontaminated foods [20-23]. Pesticides can exist in residential air by the evaporation of volatile and semi-volatile pesticides, such as organochlorine pesticides, from crops and residential surface soil [24-27]. Soil is an important source for heavy metals (like mercury/ cadmium) in crops and vegetables since the plants’ roots can absorb these pollutants from soil, and transfer them to seeds [28,29]. According Retamal-Salgado et.al, cadmium (Cd) distribution in the different plant organs, more than 40% of Cd is absorbed and translocated to the aerial part of the plant (grain and straw), and it could be directly (grains) or indirectly (animals) ingested and negatively affect humans [30]. It accumulates in the liver and kidneys for more than 30 years and causes health problems. Toxicity of this metal involves kidney and skeletal organs and is largely the result of interactions between Cd and essential metals, such as calcium [31-35]. China feeds 22% of the world population with 7% of the worlds arable land. Sodango et.al, reported that 20 million hectares (approximately 16.1%) of the total arable land in China is highly polluted with heavy metals, according to Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP), China [36]. It is estimated that between 900,000 and 1,360,000 kg arsenic per year was introduced into Bangladesh soil through contaminated groundwater used for irrigation [37]. The use of sewage sludge for agricultural purposes can be limited by the potential content of heavy metals and toxic organic compounds that pose a threat to the environment [38]. Pajewska-Szmyt et al. reported that maternal exposure to heavy metals as Pb or Hg and persistent organic pollutants were associated with children neurodevelopment delay and indirectly affects reproductive, respiratory, and endocrine system [39]. The use of pesticides has helped to increase rice yields but has also led to an increased pollution that presents a potential toxicity threat to the environment and public health [40]. Combined with outdated waste management technologies, there are potential health risks to farmers through occupational waste management practices, along with consumers through consumption of waste-contaminated products [41]. The WHO has estimated that more than three million farmers in developing countries are poisoned by agrochemicals each year [42]. In another study, WHO and UN Environmental Program estimated that one to five million cases of pesticide poisoning occur among agricultural workers each year with about 20000 fatalities [43]. Skin injury, eye injury, headache, stomachache, and fever reported in cotton workers in southern Pakistan due to pesticide exposure [44]. Pesticide induced occupational hazards has been reported to many other similar studies in Nepal [45], China [46-48], India [49-51], Bangladesh [52], Sri Lanka [53], Myanmar [54] and Philippines [55]. The US Centre for Disease Control and Prevention confirmed more than 11,000 foodborne infections in the year 2013, with several agents like viruses, bacteria, toxins, parasites, metals, and other chemicals causing food contamination [56]. Widespread agricultural use of pesticides and home storage make them easily available for acts of self-harm in many rural households. Stability of organophosphorus pesticides are also important issue [57]. It was found that malathion was more unstable than dichlorvos and diazinon, there was an over 70% loss in 90 days even at -20 °C in coarsely chopped form [58]. It could be another reason for haphazard use of pesticides in the field and stored food commodities [59]. Around 600 million food borne illnesses and 420,000 deaths occur each year due to poor food handling practice. Such contaminants get access to contaminate food mainly due to food handler’s poor knowledge and negligence during handling activities [60,61]. Hassan et.al, says increased prevalence of diabetes in South Asia may be related to the consumption of arsenic contaminated rice depending on its content in the rice and daily amount consumed [62]. Sabir et.al, 2019 demonstarted that arsenite can bind covalently with sulfhydryl groups in insulin molecules and receptors, enzymes such as pyruvate dehydrogenase and alpha keto-glutarate dehydrogenase, and glucose transporters (GLU-T), which may result in insulin resistance [63]. According to Kumar et.al, 50%-60% cereal grains can be lost during the storage stage due only to the lack of technical inefficiency. Use of scientific storage methods can reduce these losses to as low as 1%-2% [64]. Factors like increasing climatic variability, extreme weather events, and rising temperatures pose new challenges for ensuring food and nutrition security in Asian region. The South Asian region is one of the least integrated regions according to Washington based-IFPRI [65]. Agriculturally beneficial microorganisms may also contribute directly (i.e., biological N2 fixation, P solubilization, and phytohormone production, etc.) or indirectly (i.e., antimicrobial compounds biosynthesis and elicitation of induced systemic resistance, etc.) to crop improvement and fertilizers efficiency [66]. Overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides have effects on the soil organisms that are similar to human overuse of antibiotics. Indiscriminate use of chemicals might work for a few years, but after a while, there aren’t enough beneficial soil organisms to hold onto the nutrients [67]. Also, resistance to certain pesticides against brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens, and the white-backed planthoppers (WBPH), Sogatella furcifera reported in Asian countries has been reported [68-72]. Also, the higher exposure of crop plants to heavy metal stress reduces growth and yield and affect the sustainability of agricultural production [73]. Cadmium (Cd) is a well-known metal imposing threats to human health, and it can be accumulated in polished rice over the permitted range of 0.2 mg kg-1 [74]. It leads to reduction in the plant productivities as well by inhibiting their growth, photosynthesis, pigments, nutrient uptake, germination, electron transport chain [75]. Applications of phosphorus-based fertilizers improve the soil fertility and agriculture yield but at the same time concerns over a number of factors that lead to environmental damage need to be addressed properly [76]. Easy availability of pesticides has another interesting but pathetic outcome. approximately 110,000 pesticide self-poisoning deaths each year from 2010 to 2014, comprising some 14% of all global suicides [77]. According to Serrano-Medina et.al, higher rates of suicide committed in areas with intensive use of pesticides compared to areas with less use of pesticides [78]. In Bangladesh, self-poisoning by pesticide is responsible for about 40% of poisoning cases admitted to hospital and 8-10% of overall mortality in medical wards [79]. At the Philippine General Hospital in Metro Manila, Philippines (2000-2001), recorded pesticide poisoning cases showed that more than 80% were intentional in nature [80]. Public concern about the adverse environmental and human health impacts of organochlorine contaminants led to strict regulations on their use in developed nations since 1940 [81]. Nevertheless, DDT and several other organochlorine insecticides are still being used for agriculture and public health programs in developing countries in Asia and the South Pacific [82-86]. As a consequence, humans in this region are exposed to greater dietary levels of organochlorines.

Recommendations

Around 600 million food borne illnesses and 420,000 deaths occur each year due to poor food handling practice. Such contaminants get access to contaminate food mainly due to food handler’s poor knowledge and negligence during handling activities [87,88]. Accordingly, alternative methods for exposure and risk assessment have to be developed, which vary from the use of expert opinion and pre-marketing models to the use of combination of data from the literature, measurements, and expert opinion [89]. Many studies are there to overcome fertilizer/pesticide induced health effects. Rastogi et.al, reported use of silicone nanoparticles can provide green and eco-friendly alternatives to various chemical fertilizers without harming nature [90]. It has been reported that selenium (Se) application decreases Cd uptake [75]. In similar studies, selenium, copper, zinc oxide and many other metallic nanoparticles [91-97] have been studied in food processing, packaging and preservation against phytopathogens and rodents. The washing with water or soaking in solutions of salt and some chemicals e.g. chlorine, chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, acetic acid, hydroxy peracetic acid, iprodione and detergents are reported to be highly effective in reducing the level of pesticides [98]. Various food-processing operations include sorting, trimming, cleaning, cooking, baking, frying, roasting, flaking, and extrusion that have variable effects on mycotoxins [99]. Cooking rice in excess water efficiently reduces the amount of arsenic (As) in the cooked grain [100].

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 Eco-Friendly Bio-Based Plastic Films as anAlternative to Petroplastic: A Review

Authored by Asia Neelam*

Over the increasing concern on environmental issues raised due to petroplastic scientist are moving towards environmentally friendly material, i.e. Bio-based plastic which received considerable attention due to their use in edible and biodegradable packaging materials.

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Natural Antioxidants: Functions and Benefits- An Article

Authored by M M Youssef*

Natural antioxidants possess strong potential to inhibit oxidative stress by controlling the formation and scavenging the free radicals, known as reactive oxygen species (ROS).

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 Plant, Human Being, Symbiosis

Authored by Berov G Lyubomir*

Dear reader, in this article I present a unique perspective on how dominant plant species influence the human societies inhabiting their growth areas. I then raise the point that, in order for the human beings to continue increasing our “living space” without disturbing the balance in nature, we must learn to ward off the manipulative influences of other “living creatures”, and become the leader, at least within the planet Earth [1].

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Social Accounting vs Food Accessibility in Developing World

Authored by Mohammad Taghi Sheykhi*

Social accounting is used as an umbrella term to denote better use of land and environment to extract food including plants, vegetables, animals etc. It provides better estimates of what there is, and what there should be. As nature is ever changing, there should be a supervision on such a link as to what we mean by social accounting.

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Food Industry Applications of Phyto-Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles

Authored by Eduardo Padilla Camberos*

Silver nanoparticles biosynthesized from plants represent an economical option without the use of toxic solvents, so they are friendly to the environment. Within their various applications, these products are used in the food industry as antioxidants and packaging material increasing the preservation time by controlling microbial contamination.

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